Goddess Worship in Ancient Pagan Cultures

The pagan belief systems of antiquity refer to the various religions and spiritual practices that were prevalent in the ancient world prior to the rise of Christianity and Islam. These belief systems were characterized by their polytheistic nature, worship of nature and natural forces, and rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices aimed at appeasing the gods and obtaining their favor. In ancient Greece, the religion revolved around the twelve Olympian gods, including Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, and Athena. The Greeks believed that these gods controlled different aspects of life and would offer prayers, sacrifices, and offerings at temples and shrines dedicated to them. The Oracle of Delphi was also highly revered as the conduit through which the gods would communicate with mortals. Similarly, ancient Rome had a pantheon of gods and goddesses, with Jupiter, Juno, and Mars as some of the most important deities.

Hittite Woman and Child. Dating from the 14th or 13th century BC, this miniature gold sculpture was cast using the lost-wax technique. It is attributed to the Hittite people of Anatolia and was possibly intended as an amulet to be worn around the neck. The seated female figure may be a goddess, with her headdress representing the sun. (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, gift of Norbert Schimmel Trust)

Essential to most of them is a polytheistic conceptualization of the divine many gods rather than one, each with their own area of patronage, be it war, wisdom, or wine. Whilst he was still the supreme god, carrying a thunderbolt and posturing as a muscle-and-beard-bound ruler of the universe, his rituals, symbols, and history are decidedly Roman.

Similarly, ancient Rome had a pantheon of gods and goddesses, with Jupiter, Juno, and Mars as some of the most important deities. The Romans were particularly renowned for their religious festivals and public ceremonies, such as the Lupercalia and Saturnalia, which involved processions, feasting, and performances to honor the gods. In ancient Egypt, the religion centered around the worship of numerous gods and goddesses, with Ra, Isis, and Osiris being among the most prominent.

BOOK: “Pagans” clears up misconceptions about non-traditional belief systems through history

(Photo by Ola Myrin/ Swedish History Museum, Stockholm) Skåne hammer pendant (between 9th and 11th centuries From Skåne, Sweden, this silver Mjölnir is decorated with filigree. At the top is a bird of prey head, with a protruding beak and bulging eyes

Thames & Hudson "Pagans: The Visual Culture of Pagan Myths, Legends and Rituals" by Ethan Doyle White.

Hittite Woman and Child. Dating from the 14th or 13th century BC, this miniature gold sculpture was cast using the lost-wax technique. It is attributed to the Hittite people of Anatolia and was possibly intended as an amulet to be worn around the neck. The seated female figure may be a goddess, with her headdress representing the sun. (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, gift of Norbert Schimmel Trust)

Lee Oi-Cheong/The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New Nishikawa Sukenobu, The God Izanagi and Goddess Izanami, 18th century. This painting features a scene from Shinto's main cosmogony, in which the kami siblings Izanagi and Izanami observe the formation of an island in the sea. (Photo by Lee Oi-Cheong/The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Mary Griggs Burke Collection)

The J. Paul Getty Museum/The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los An The Oracle by Camillo Miola (1880) depicts the Pythia, a priestess of the god Apollo, who served as an oracle, experiencing visions after imbibing vapors rising from the floor of an inner room at the Delphi temple complex. Over time, the Pythia became the most influential oracle in all of Greece, and today the ruins of Delphi are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. (The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles)

Photo: Bibi Saint-Pol Terra mater, c. 200-250. From a villa in Sentinum, Italy, this Roman floor mosaic depicts Aion, the god of eternity, alongside the reclining Earth Mother goddess Terra Mater.

The J. Paul Getty Museum/The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles The Oracle by Camillo Miola (1880) depicts the Pythia, a priestess of the god Apollo, who served as an oracle, experiencing visions after imbibing vapors rising from the floor of an inner room at the Delphi temple complex. (The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles)

Pagans have long had a bad rap.

Ethan Doyle White’s “Pagans: The Visual Culture of Pagan Myths, Legends + Rituals” corrects misconceptions and explains their intricate belief systems and rich histories, some stretching back to the dawn of civilization.

The illustrated history covers ancient and modern Pagans. Photos, paintings, talismans, shrines, and photos depict Pagans through the centuries.

As White explains from the beginning, “For followers of Abrahamic religions who fear veering into idolatry, the material world has long been a source of concern. In contrast, there are, across the world, other religions — those that Christians call ‘pagan’ — that have wholeheartedly embraced the material universe as something that can possess divinity, value and meaning.”

Modern Paganism is practiced globally and includes Wiccans, Druids, Heathens, Neo-Shamans, and members of the Goddess Movement.

“There is a huge diversity among these modern Pagans, both in their practices and their beliefs, but there is also an underlying commonality,” White adds. “They all seek to resurrect something of the lost pre-Christian religions of Europe, North Africa and West Asia, adapting them for today’s world.”

Although the book defines all non-Abrahamic religions as Pagan — including modern, mainstream faiths such as Hinduism and Shintoism — its emphasis is on the belief systems of vanished cultures, like ancient Egypt or pre-Christian Ireland.

Nishikawa Sukenobu, The God Izanagi and Goddess Izanami, 18th century. This painting features a scene from Shinto’s main cosmogony, in which the kami siblings Izanagi and Izanami observe the formation of an island in the sea. (Photo by Lee Oi-Cheong/The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Mary Griggs Burke Collection)

The word pagan originated as a slur. From Latin, paganus, it means pertaining to the country. If you were one of the pagani, you were considered unsophisticated, uneducated, and prey to foolish superstitions.

But now, like some other minorities, modern Pagans have taken the word back and proudly turned its meaning inside out.

“The use of Paganism in this context is one of reappropriation,” White declares, “taking a term with a long history of negative connotations and defiantly claiming it as a statement of self-definition.” What was once a slur has become a badge of honor.

Some of the book’s most intriguing material focuses on practices that are nearly extinct today.

For example, not very many people today worship the goddess Isis. But she, and other Egyptian deities, were once at the heart of a powerful belief system. And they live on in the multitude of statues, objects, and artwork their worshippers left behind.

At ancient Egypt’s apex of its civilization, more than 1,000 deities were venerated, “where their role was to uphold maat, the cosmic order.” With that many gods and goddesses competing for attention, pious Egyptians would typically focus their worship on a few, depending on their needs.

They might, for example, venerate Osiris, who had power over fertility (and whose fabled death and resurrection was a central Egyptian myth). Or they might pray to Horus, the falcon-headed god of the sky, or Set, who ruled over warfare, storms, and the desert. Ailing Egyptians turned their eyes to Sekhmet, the leonine goddess whose many responsibilities included healing; if Sekhmet failed, then the dog-faced Anubis was waiting to lead them to the afterlife.

The Oracle by Camillo Miola (1880) depicts the Pythia, a priestess of the god Apollo, who served as an oracle, experiencing visions after imbibing vapors rising from the floor of an inner room at the Delphi temple complex. Over time, the Pythia became the most influential oracle in all of Greece, and today the ruins of Delphi are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. (The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles)

“A deity may be chosen because it is highly popular or even a patron figure in a particular place,” White writes. “Sometimes worshippers strike bargains with a deity, agreeing to provide them with offerings in turn for a service rendered. Ultimately gods and goddesses are commonly seen as powerful allies in coping with the trials and tribulations of everyday life.”

The faith of ancient Rome — itself adopted and adapted from Greek beliefs — was also full of gods and goddesses, and plenty of festivals were devoted to celebrating them.

There was a celebration for every season and then some. Saturnalia, a salute to the god Saturn, marked by parties and gift-giving, was held in December. Lupercalia, a celebration of fertility, came in February. Cerealia, held in the spring, honored the goddess of grain; in June, Vestalia honored Vesta, the goddess of the hearth.

In the late 4th century, Emperor Theodosius, a Christian, outlawed Pagan celebrations, although some traditions continued under different names. You can still see hints of Saturnalia in Christmas, perhaps, a touch of Lupercalia in Valentine’s Day.

Terra mater, c. 200-250. From a villa in Sentinum, Italy, this Roman floor mosaic depicts Aion, the god of eternity, alongside the reclining Earth Mother goddess Terra Mater.

The ancient religions of pre-Christian England and Ireland had their festivals, although the details — like many of the facts about those cultures — are lost.

The midwinter celebration Yule later had its name appropriated by the Christmas season — along with its tradition of burning a massive Yule log. Samhain, an autumn fest marking when the living and the dead were closest, was reinvented as Halloween. Beltane, a spring festival, has survived, somewhat changed, as May Day. The fest’s oldest tradition, of driving cattle between two bonfires, has, unsurprisingly, faded away.

Also lost to history is whatever was specifically celebrated at Europe’s most famous Pagan structure, Stonehenge. Dating to about 2500 BCE, “it probably had a ritual purpose for its prehistoric builders,” White writes. Its massive stones are arranged to mark both the sunset of the winter solstice and the sunrise of the summer one. Modern excavations have unearthed bones, suggesting it also served as a cemetery.

But who built it and why remains unknown, although “in the 20th century it again became a site of religious significance,” White notes. Modern Druids still hold ceremonies there.

Hittite Woman and Child. Dating from the 14th or 13th century BC, this miniature gold sculpture was cast using the lost-wax technique. It is attributed to the Hittite people of Anatolia and was possibly intended as an amulet to be worn around the neck. The seated female figure may be a goddess, with her headdress representing the sun. (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, gift of Norbert Schimmel Trust)

That Stonehenge predates the Druid religion by several thousand years doesn’t particularly bother the faith’s current adherents. With so much of Pagan history forgotten — or, at times, forbidden — the worshippers of today have had to create their own religions. They mix myth and folklore. They interpret — and, critics say, misinterpret — history.

Wicca, for example, while evoking ancient ideas, is more of a modern invention, White writes, and he dates it to the early 1950s. “Initial adherents claimed (a link to) the ancient religion of the Horned God — although they typically maintained that they worshipped a goddess, too,” he writes. “What is more likely is that Wicca was created by occultists who were interested in the work of writers such as Margaret Murray and who used a range of sources.”

Wiccans were not, they insisted, Satanists or practitioners of black magic. “Wiccan rituals, therefore, often focused on constructive ends, such as healing or helping people secure employment,” White writes. At ceremonies, some participants wear special robes. At others, worshippers go “skyclad” or naked. It’s a way of avoiding the “differentiation in socio-economic status that clothing can denote.”

Politically progressive, Wicca also embraced a variety of causes, with writers promoting environmentalism, feminism, and LGBTQI+ concerns. “Some of these texts were aimed at younger readers, resulting in ‘teen witch’ trends emerging in the late 1990s and again in the late 2010s,” White writes. “In doing so, Wicca established itself as the world’s largest modern Pagan religion, with hundreds of thousands of followers.”

(Photo by Ola Myrin/ Swedish History Museum, Stockholm)
Skane hammer pendant (between 9th and 11th centuries From Skane, Sweden, this silver Mjölnir is decorated with filigree. At the top is a bird of prey head, with a protruding beak and bulging eyes

That’s probably alarming to many monotheistic fundamentalists, who still see the word Pagan as a slur. But for much of the modern world, it’s now merely descriptive, as a trip to one of the most traditional places in America — a military cemetery — will prove.

At one point, only three religious symbols were allowed to be engraved on tombstones — a Christian cross, a Jewish Star of David, or an Islamic crescent. They’ve since been joined by Pagan symbols, including a pentagram for Wiccans and, for Heathen followers of ancient Norse myths, Thor’s hammer.

Even in death, the old gods live on.

Furthermore, whilst a lot of our surviving evidence for ancient cultures comes from the remains of urban settlements, most people actually lived in the countryside as farmers, hunters, traders, and craftsmen. It’s no surprise then that these people had gods and goddesses of the wilderness, hunting, trees, and rivers to accompany them! In a less-Christianised way, these really were the more “pagan” (rural) deities!

The Egyptians believed in the concept of an afterlife, and their burial rituals and practices were conducted with the aim of ensuring a smooth transition to the afterlife. Meanwhile, ancient Norse mythology was characterized by its polytheistic nature and emphasis on powerful deities such as Odin, Thor, and Freya. The Norse people believed in an interconnected universe, with gods, humans, and other mythical beings all playing essential roles. Overall, the pagan belief systems of antiquity were diverse and varied, with each civilization having its unique set of gods, rituals, and beliefs. They served as a way for people to understand and interact with the world around them, as well as find meaning and purpose in their lives. Although these belief systems have largely been superseded by monotheistic religions today, they continue to be studied and appreciated for the cultural and historical insights they provide..

Reviews for "Paganism and Nature: A Deep Connection to the Earth"

1. Jenna - 2/5 stars - I found "The pagan belief systems of antiquity" to be overly academic and dry. The author seemed more interested in showcasing their extensive knowledge than in creating an engaging narrative. I was hoping for more insight into the cultural and spiritual practices of ancient pagans, but instead, I was bombarded with historical facts and obscure references. This book is better suited for scholars and academics rather than casual readers looking for an accessible introduction to the topic.

2. Mark - 1/5 stars - This book was a disappointment. The author's biased perspective and condescending tone made it difficult to take anything seriously. It felt like reading a lengthy lecture from someone who thinks they know it all. I was hoping to learn more about the pagan belief systems, but unfortunately, this book only scratched the surface without providing any depth or meaningful analysis. I would not recommend it to anyone looking for a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

3. Sarah - 2/5 stars - As someone with a general interest in history and spirituality, I was excited to dive into "The pagan belief systems of antiquity." However, I found it to be quite tedious. The author's writing style was dense and filled with convoluted language, making it inaccessible for readers without an extensive background in the subject. Furthermore, the book lacked the exploration of the emotional and human aspects of pagan belief systems, focusing mainly on the historical and intellectual aspects. Overall, not the enlightening and engaging read I was expecting.

4. David - 2/5 stars - I was hoping to gain a deeper understanding of the diverse pagan belief systems of ancient cultures, but this book fell short. The author's narrow focus on a select few civilizations left me wanting more. Additionally, the lack of exploration and analysis of their impact on modern beliefs and practices was disappointing. I felt like I was reading a textbook rather than an engaging exploration of pagan spirituality. If you're looking for a comprehensive and well-rounded examination of antiquity's pagan belief systems, I suggest looking elsewhere.

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